Most SLM practices can become financially profitable within 3 to 10 years (medium evidence, high agreement). The recent depletion trend of the 13C isotope in the atmosphere indicates that higher biogenic sources explain part of the current CH4 increase and that biogenic sources make up a larger proportion of the source mix than they did before 2000 (high confidence). Human use, at varying intensities, affects about 60–85% of forests and 70–90% of other natural ecosystems (e.g., savannahs, natural grasslands) (high confidence). Choice and implementation of policy instruments determine future climate and land pathways (medium confidence). Lower carbon density in re-growing forests, compared to carbon stocks before deforestation, results in net emissions from land-use change (very high confidence). The local redistribution of water and energy following the changes on land affect the horizontal and vertical gradients of temperature, pressure and moisture, thus altering regional winds and consequently moisture and temperature advection and convection and subsequently, precipitation. Total technical mitigation potential from crop and livestock activities and agroforestry is estimated as 2.3–9.6 GtCO2-eq yr–1 by 2050 (medium confidence). {Cross-Chapter Box 11 in Chapter 7}, The significant social and political changes required for sustainable land use, reductions in demand and land-based mitigation efforts associated with climate stabilisation require a wide range of governance mechanisms. {2.5.2, 2.5.4, 2.7, Cross-Chapter Box 4}, Mitigation response options related to land use are a key element of most modelled scenarios that provide strong mitigation, alongside emissions reduction in other sectors (high confidence). This estimate includes emissions of 9–14% from crop and livestock activities within the farm gate and 5–14% from land use and land-use change including deforestation and peatland degradation (high confidence); 5–10% is from supply chain activities (medium confidence). {3.7.5, 7.4.4, 7.5.2, 7.5.3, 7.5.4, 7.5.7, 7.6.1, 7.6.3}, Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) can play a key role in understanding climate processes and impacts, adaptation to climate change, sustainable land management (SLM) across different ecosystems, and enhancement of food security (high confidence). Examples of potential limits to adaptation due to climate-change-induced land degradation are coastal erosion (where land disappears, collapsing infrastructure and livelihoods due to thawing of permafrost), and extreme forms of soil erosion. There is no single method by which land degradation can be measured objectively and consistently over large areas because it is such a complex and value-laden concept (very high confidence). Conversion of primary to managed forests, illegal logging and unsustainable forest management result in GHG emissions (very high confidence) and can have additional physical effects on the regional climate including those arising from albedo shifts (medium confidence). Projected increases in temperature and the severity of drought events across some dryland areas can increase chances of wildfire occurrence (medium confidence). Where can the response options be applied? {2.3.3}, While managed pastures make up only one-quarter of grazing lands, they contributed more than three-quarters of N2O emissions from grazing lands between 1961 and 2014 with rapid recent increases of nitrogen inputs resulting in disproportionate growth in emissions from these lands (medium confidence). While some estimates include sustainability and cost considerations, most do not include socio-economic barriers, the impacts of future climate change or non-GHG climate forcings. The climate change mitigation potential for bioenergy and BECCS is large (up to 11 GtCO2 yr–1); however, the effects of bioenergy production on land degradation, food insecurity, water scarcity, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and other environmental goals are scale- and context-specific (high confidence). {2.2.4, Cross- Chapter Box 4 in this chapter}, The frequency and intensity of some extreme weather and climate events have increased as a consequence of global warming and will continue to increase under medium and high emission scenarios (high confidence). Meat analogues such as imitation meat (from plant products), cultured meat, and insects may help in the transition to more healthy and sustainable diets, although their carbon footprints and acceptability are uncertain. {2.3.3}, Increased emissions from vegetation and soils due to climate change in the future are expected to counteract potential sinks due to CO2 fertilisation (low confidence). ILK can be used in decision-making at various scales and levels, and exchange of experiences with adaptation and mitigation that include ILK is both a requirement and an entry strategy for participatory climate communication and action. These are from agriculture and land use, storage, transport, packaging, processing, retail, and consumption (medium confidence). {6.4}, The feasibility of response options, including those with multiple co-benefits, is limited due to economic, technological, institutional, socio-cultural, environmental and geophysical barriers (high confidence). {6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4}, Nine options deliver medium-to-large benefits for all five land challenges (high confidence). The options with medium-to-large benefits for all challenges are increased food productivity, improved cropland management, improved grazing land management, improved livestock management, agroforestry, forest management, increased soil organic carbon content, fire management and reduced post-harvest losses. In high carbon lands such as forests and peatlands, the carbon benefits of land protection are greater in the short-term than converting land to bioenergy crops for BECCS, which can take several harvest cycles to ‘pay-back’ the carbon emitted during conversion (carbon-debt), from decades to over a century (medium confidence). {1.2.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 1.3.4, 1.3.5, 1.3.6}, Sustainable food supply and food consumption, based on nutritionally balanced and diverse diets, would enhance food security under climate and socio-economic changes (high confidence). In the absence of rapid emissions reductions, reliance on large-scale, land-based, climate change mitigation is projected to increase, which would aggravate existing pressures on land (high confidence). Small hydro power installations (especially in clusters) can impact downstream river ecological connectivity for fish (high agreement, medium evidence).
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